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 <section id="module-inspect">
<h1>28.13. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">inspect</code></a> — Inspect live objects<a class="headerlink" href="#module-inspect" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.1.
</div>
Source code: <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/2.7/Lib/inspect.py">Lib/inspect.py</a>
<hr class="docutils" />
The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-inspect" title="inspect: Extract information and source code from live objects."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">inspect</code></a> module provides several useful functions to help get
information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods, functions,
tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects. For example, it can help you
examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source code of a method, extract
and format the argument list for a function, or get all the information you need
to display a detailed traceback.
There are four main kinds of services provided by this module: type checking,
getting source code, inspecting classes and functions, and examining the
interpreter stack.
<section id="types-and-members">
<h2>28.13.1. Types and members<a class="headerlink" href="#types-and-members" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
The <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getmembers" title="inspect.getmembers"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getmembers()</code></a> function retrieves the members of an object such as a
class or module. The sixteen functions whose names begin with “is” are mainly
provided as convenient choices for the second argument to <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getmembers" title="inspect.getmembers"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getmembers()</code></a>.
They also help you determine when you can expect to find the following special
attributes:
<table class="docutils align-default">
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 18%" />
<col style="width: 27%" />
<col style="width: 44%" />
<col style="width: 11%" />
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head">Type</th>
<th class="head">Attribute</th>
<th class="head">Description</th>
<th class="head">Notes</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td>module</td>
<td>__doc__</td>
<td>documentation string</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__file__</td>
<td>filename (missing for
built-in modules)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>class</td>
<td>__doc__</td>
<td>documentation string</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__module__</td>
<td>name of module in which
this class was defined</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>method</td>
<td>__doc__</td>
<td>documentation string</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__name__</td>
<td>name with which this
method was defined</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>im_class</td>
<td>class object that asked
for this method</td>
<td>(1)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>im_func or
__func__</td>
<td>function object
containing implementation
of method</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>im_self or
__self__</td>
<td>instance to which this
method is bound, or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td>function</td>
<td>__doc__</td>
<td>documentation string</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>__name__</td>
<td>name with which this
function was defined</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>func_code</td>
<td>code object containing
compiled function
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-bytecode">bytecode</a></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>func_defaults</td>
<td>tuple of any default
values for arguments</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>func_doc</td>
<td>(same as __doc__)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>func_globals</td>
<td>global namespace in which
this function was defined</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>func_name</td>
<td>(same as __name__)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>generator</td>
<td>__iter__</td>
<td>defined to support
iteration over container</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>close</td>
<td>raises new GeneratorExit
exception inside the
generator to terminate
the iteration</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>gi_code</td>
<td>code object</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>gi_frame</td>
<td>frame object or possibly
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> once the
generator has been
exhausted</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>gi_running</td>
<td>set to 1 when generator
is executing, 0 otherwise</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>next</td>
<td>return the next item from
the container</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>send</td>
<td>resumes the generator and
“sends” a value that
becomes the result of the
current yield-expression</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>throw</td>
<td>used to raise an
exception inside the
generator</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>traceback</td>
<td>tb_frame</td>
<td>frame object at this
level</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>tb_lasti</td>
<td>index of last attempted
instruction in bytecode</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>tb_lineno</td>
<td>current line number in
Python source code</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>tb_next</td>
<td>next inner traceback
object (called by this
level)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>frame</td>
<td>f_back</td>
<td>next outer frame object
(this frame’s caller)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>f_builtins</td>
<td>builtins namespace seen
by this frame</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>f_code</td>
<td>code object being
executed in this frame</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>f_exc_traceback</td>
<td>traceback if raised in
this frame, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>f_exc_type</td>
<td>exception type if raised
in this frame, or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>f_exc_value</td>
<td>exception value if raised
in this frame, or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>f_globals</td>
<td>global namespace seen by
this frame</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>f_lasti</td>
<td>index of last attempted
instruction in bytecode</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>f_lineno</td>
<td>current line number in
Python source code</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>f_locals</td>
<td>local namespace seen by
this frame</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>f_restricted</td>
<td>0 or 1 if frame is in
restricted execution mode</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>f_trace</td>
<td>tracing function for this
frame, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>code</td>
<td>co_argcount</td>
<td>number of arguments (not
including * or **
args)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>co_code</td>
<td>string of raw compiled
bytecode</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>co_consts</td>
<td>tuple of constants used
in the bytecode</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>co_filename</td>
<td>name of file in which
this code object was
created</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>co_firstlineno</td>
<td>number of first line in
Python source code</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>co_flags</td>
<td>bitmap: 1=optimized <code class="docutils literal notranslate">|</code>
2=newlocals <code class="docutils literal notranslate">|</code> 4=*arg
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">|</code> 8=**arg</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>co_lnotab</td>
<td>encoded mapping of line
numbers to bytecode
indices</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>co_name</td>
<td>name with which this code
object was defined</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>co_names</td>
<td>tuple of names of local
variables</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>co_nlocals</td>
<td>number of local variables</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>co_stacksize</td>
<td>virtual machine stack
space required</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>co_varnames</td>
<td>tuple of names of
arguments and local
variables</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td>builtin</td>
<td>__doc__</td>
<td>documentation string</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td></td>
<td>__name__</td>
<td>original name of this
function or method</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td></td>
<td>__self__</td>
<td>instance to which a
method is bound, or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Note:
<ol class="arabic">
<li><div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.2: <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">im_class</code> used to refer to the class that defined the method.
</div>
</li>
</ol>
<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getmembers">
inspect.getmembers(object[, predicate])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getmembers" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return all the members of an object in a list of (name, value) pairs sorted by
name. If the optional predicate argument is supplied, only members for which
the predicate returns a true value are included.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getmembers" title="inspect.getmembers"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getmembers()</code></a> does not return metaclass attributes when the argument
is a class (this behavior is inherited from the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">dir()</code></a> function).
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getmoduleinfo">
inspect.getmoduleinfo(path)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getmoduleinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a tuple of values that describe how Python will interpret the file
identified by path if it is a module, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> if it would not be
identified as a module. The return tuple is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(name, suffix, mode,
module_type)</code>, where name is the name of the module without the name of
any enclosing package, suffix is the trailing part of the file name (which
may not be a dot-delimited extension), mode is the <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">open()</code></a> mode that
would be used (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'r'</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'rb'</code>), and module_type is an integer giving
the type of the module. module_type will have a value which can be
compared to the constants defined in the <a class="reference internal" href="imp.html#module-imp" title="imp: Access the implementation of the import statement."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">imp</code></a> module; see the
documentation for that module for more information on module types.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.6: Returns a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple">named tuple</a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate">ModuleInfo(name, suffix, mode,
module_type)</code>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getmodulename">
inspect.getmodulename(path)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getmodulename" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the name of the module named by the file path, without including the
names of enclosing packages. This uses the same algorithm as the interpreter
uses when searching for modules. If the name cannot be matched according to the
interpreter’s rules, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> is returned.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.ismodule">
inspect.ismodule(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.ismodule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a module.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isclass">
inspect.isclass(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isclass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a class, whether built-in or created in Python
code.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.ismethod">
inspect.ismethod(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.ismethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a bound or unbound method written in Python.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isfunction">
inspect.isfunction(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isfunction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a Python function, which includes functions
created by a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-lambda">lambda</a> expression.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isgeneratorfunction">
inspect.isgeneratorfunction(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isgeneratorfunction" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a Python generator function.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.6.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isgenerator">
inspect.isgenerator(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isgenerator" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a generator.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.6.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.istraceback">
inspect.istraceback(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.istraceback" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a traceback.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isframe">
inspect.isframe(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isframe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a frame.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.iscode">
inspect.iscode(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.iscode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a code.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isbuiltin">
inspect.isbuiltin(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isbuiltin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a built-in function or a bound built-in method.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isroutine">
inspect.isroutine(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isroutine" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a user-defined or built-in function or method.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isabstract">
inspect.isabstract(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isabstract" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is an abstract base class.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.6.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.ismethoddescriptor">
inspect.ismethoddescriptor(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.ismethoddescriptor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a method descriptor, but not if
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.ismethod" title="inspect.ismethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">ismethod()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.isclass" title="inspect.isclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">isclass()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.isfunction" title="inspect.isfunction"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">isfunction()</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.isbuiltin" title="inspect.isbuiltin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">isbuiltin()</code></a>
are true.
This is new as of Python 2.2, and, for example, is true of
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">int.__add__</code>. An object passing this test
has a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__get__()</code></a> method but not a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__set__()</code></a>
method, but beyond that the set of attributes varies. A
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__name__</code></a> attribute is usually
sensible, and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__doc__</code> often is.
Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other tests
return false from the <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.ismethoddescriptor" title="inspect.ismethoddescriptor"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">ismethoddescriptor()</code></a> test, simply because the
other tests promise more – you can, e.g., count on having the
<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">im_func</code> attribute (etc) when an object passes <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.ismethod" title="inspect.ismethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">ismethod()</code></a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isdatadescriptor">
inspect.isdatadescriptor(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isdatadescriptor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a data descriptor.
Data descriptors have both a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__get__" title="object.__get__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__get__</code></a> and a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__set__" title="object.__set__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__set__</code></a> method.
Examples are properties (defined in Python), getsets, and members. The
latter two are defined in C and there are more specific tests available for
those types, which is robust across Python implementations. Typically, data
descriptors will also have <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__name__</code></a> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__doc__</code> attributes
(properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes), but this is
not guaranteed.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.3.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.isgetsetdescriptor">
inspect.isgetsetdescriptor(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.isgetsetdescriptor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a getset descriptor.
<div class="impl-detail compound">
CPython implementation detail: getsets are attributes defined in extension modules via
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyGetSetDef" title="PyGetSetDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate">PyGetSetDef</code></a> structures. For Python implementations without such
types, this method will always return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>.
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.5.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.ismemberdescriptor">
inspect.ismemberdescriptor(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.ismemberdescriptor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object is a member descriptor.
<div class="impl-detail compound">
CPython implementation detail: Member descriptors are attributes defined in extension modules via
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyMemberDef" title="PyMemberDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate">PyMemberDef</code></a> structures. For Python implementations without such
types, this method will always return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>.
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.5.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="retrieving-source-code">
<h2>28.13.2. Retrieving source code<a class="headerlink" href="#retrieving-source-code" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getdoc">
inspect.getdoc(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getdoc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with <a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.cleandoc" title="inspect.cleandoc"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">cleandoc()</code></a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getcomments">
inspect.getcomments(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getcomments" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately preceding the
object’s source code (for a class, function, or method), or at the top of the
Python source file (if the object is a module).
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getfile">
inspect.getfile(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was defined.
This will fail with a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code> if the object is a built-in module,
class, or function.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getmodule">
inspect.getmodule(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getmodule" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Try to guess which module an object was defined in.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getsourcefile">
inspect.getsourcefile(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getsourcefile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was defined. This
will fail with a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code> if the object is a built-in module, class, or
function.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getsourcelines">
inspect.getsourcelines(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getsourcelines" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an object. The
argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code
object. The source code is returned as a list of the lines corresponding to the
object and the line number indicates where in the original source file the first
line of code was found. An <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">IOError</code> is raised if the source code cannot
be retrieved.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getsource">
inspect.getsource(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getsource" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the text of the source code for an object. The argument may be a module,
class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is
returned as a single string. An <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">IOError</code> is raised if the source code
cannot be retrieved.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.cleandoc">
inspect.cleandoc(doc)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.cleandoc" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up with blocks
of code.
All leading whitespace is removed from the first line. Any leading whitespace
that can be uniformly removed from the second line onwards is removed. Empty
lines at the beginning and end are subsequently removed. Also, all tabs are
expanded to spaces.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.6.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="classes-and-functions">
<h2>28.13.3. Classes and functions<a class="headerlink" href="#classes-and-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getclasstree">
inspect.getclasstree(classes[, unique])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getclasstree" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists. Where a
nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the class whose entry
immediately precedes the list. Each entry is a 2-tuple containing a class and a
tuple of its base classes. If the unique argument is true, exactly one entry
appears in the returned structure for each class in the given list. Otherwise,
classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will appear multiple
times.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getargspec">
inspect.getargspec(func)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getargspec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get the names and default values of a Python function’s arguments. A tuple of
four things is returned: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(args, varargs, keywords, defaults)</code>. args is a
list of the argument names (it may contain nested lists). varargs and
keywords are the names of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">**</code> arguments or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>. defaults is a tuple of default argument values or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> if there
are no default arguments; if this tuple has n elements, they correspond to
the last n elements listed in args.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.6: Returns a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple">named tuple</a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate">ArgSpec(args, varargs, keywords,
defaults)</code>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getargvalues">
inspect.getargvalues(frame)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getargvalues" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame. A tuple of
four things is returned: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(args, varargs, keywords, locals)</code>. args is a
list of the argument names (it may contain nested lists). varargs and
keywords are the names of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">**</code> arguments or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>.
locals is the locals dictionary of the given frame.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.6: Returns a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple">named tuple</a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate">ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords,
locals)</code>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.formatargspec">
inspect.formatargspec(args[, varargs, varkw, defaults, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue, join])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.formatargspec" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getargspec" title="inspect.getargspec"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getargspec()</code></a>. The format* arguments are the corresponding optional
formatting functions that are called to turn names and values into strings.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.formatargvalues">
inspect.formatargvalues(args[, varargs, varkw, locals, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue, join])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.formatargvalues" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by
<a class="reference internal" href="#inspect.getargvalues" title="inspect.getargvalues"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getargvalues()</code></a>. The format* arguments are the corresponding optional
formatting functions that are called to turn names and values into strings.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getmro">
inspect.getmro(cls)<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getmro" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a tuple of class cls’s base classes, including cls, in method resolution
order. No class appears more than once in this tuple. Note that the method
resolution order depends on cls’s type. Unless a very peculiar user-defined
metatype is in use, cls will be the first element of the tuple.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getcallargs">
inspect.getcallargs(func[, *args][, **kwds])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getcallargs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Bind the args and kwds to the argument names of the Python function or
method func, as if it was called with them. For bound methods, bind also the
first argument (typically named <code class="docutils literal notranslate">self</code>) to the associated instance. A dict
is returned, mapping the argument names (including the names of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*</code> and
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">**</code> arguments, if any) to their values from args and kwds. In case of
invoking func incorrectly, i.e. whenever <code class="docutils literal notranslate">func(*args, **kwds)</code> would raise
an exception because of incompatible signature, an exception of the same type
and the same or similar message is raised. For example:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; from inspect import getcallargs
&gt;&gt;&gt; def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
... pass
&gt;&gt;&gt; getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3)
{&#39;a&#39;: 1, &#39;named&#39;: {}, &#39;b&#39;: 2, &#39;pos&#39;: (3,)}
&gt;&gt;&gt; getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4)
{&#39;a&#39;: 2, &#39;named&#39;: {&#39;x&#39;: 4}, &#39;b&#39;: 1, &#39;pos&#39;: ()}
&gt;&gt;&gt; getcallargs(f)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: f() takes at least 1 argument (0 given)
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.7.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="the-interpreter-stack">
<h2>28.13.4. The interpreter stack<a class="headerlink" href="#the-interpreter-stack" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
When the following functions return “frame records,” each record is a tuple of
six items: the frame object, the filename, the line number of the current line,
the function name, a list of lines of context from the source code, and the
index of the current line within that list.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
Keeping references to frame objects, as found in the first element of the frame
records these functions return, can cause your program to create reference
cycles. Once a reference cycle has been created, the lifespan of all objects
which can be accessed from the objects which form the cycle can become much
longer even if Python’s optional cycle detector is enabled. If such cycles must
be created, it is important to ensure they are explicitly broken to avoid the
delayed destruction of objects and increased memory consumption which occurs.
Though the cycle detector will catch these, destruction of the frames (and local
variables) can be made deterministic by removing the cycle in a
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#finally"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">finally</code></a> clause. This is also important if the cycle detector was
disabled when Python was compiled or using <a class="reference internal" href="gc.html#gc.disable" title="gc.disable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">gc.disable()</code></a>. For example:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def handle_stackframe_without_leak():
 frame = inspect.currentframe()
 try:
 # do something with the frame
 finally:
 del frame
</pre></div>
</div>
</div>
The optional context argument supported by most of these functions specifies
the number of lines of context to return, which are centered around the current
line.
<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getframeinfo">
inspect.getframeinfo(frame[, context])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getframeinfo" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get information about a frame or traceback object. A 5-tuple is returned, the
last five elements of the frame’s frame record.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.6: Returns a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-named-tuple">named tuple</a> <code class="docutils literal notranslate">Traceback(filename, lineno, function,
code_context, index)</code>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getouterframes">
inspect.getouterframes(frame[, context])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getouterframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get a list of frame records for a frame and all outer frames. These frames
represent the calls that lead to the creation of frame. The first entry in the
returned list represents frame; the last entry represents the outermost call
on frame’s stack.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.getinnerframes">
inspect.getinnerframes(traceback[, context])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.getinnerframes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Get a list of frame records for a traceback’s frame and all inner frames. These
frames represent calls made as a consequence of frame. The first entry in the
list represents traceback; the last entry represents where the exception was
raised.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.currentframe">
inspect.currentframe()<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.currentframe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the frame object for the caller’s stack frame.
<div class="impl-detail compound">
CPython implementation detail: This function relies on Python stack frame support in the interpreter,
which isn’t guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. If
running in an implementation without Python stack frame support this
function returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.stack">
inspect.stack([context])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.stack" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a list of frame records for the caller’s stack. The first entry in the
returned list represents the caller; the last entry represents the outermost
call on the stack.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="inspect.trace">
inspect.trace([context])<a class="headerlink" href="#inspect.trace" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a list of frame records for the stack between the current frame and the
frame in which an exception currently being handled was raised in. The first
entry in the list represents the caller; the last entry represents where the
exception was raised.
</dd></dl>

</section>
</section>

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 <ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">28.13. <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">inspect</code> — Inspect live objects</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#types-and-members">28.13.1. Types and members</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#retrieving-source-code">28.13.2. Retrieving source code</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#classes-and-functions">28.13.3. Classes and functions</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-interpreter-stack">28.13.4. The interpreter stack</a></li>
</ul>
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