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 <section id="built-in-functions">
<h1>2. Built-in Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#built-in-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
The Python interpreter has a number of functions built into it that are always
available. They are listed here in alphabetical order.
<table class="docutils align-default">
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 21%" />
<col style="width: 19%" />
<col style="width: 20%" />
<col style="width: 19%" />
<col style="width: 22%" />
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr class="row-odd"><th class="head"></th>
<th class="head"></th>
<th class="head">Built-in Functions</th>
<th class="head"></th>
<th class="head"></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="row-even"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#abs" title="abs"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">abs()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#divmod" title="divmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">divmod()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">input()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">open()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">staticmethod()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#all" title="all"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">all()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#enumerate" title="enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">enumerate()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">int()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#ord" title="ord"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">ord()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">str()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#any" title="any"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">any()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">isinstance()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#pow" title="pow"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">pow()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#sum" title="sum"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">sum()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#basestring" title="basestring"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">basestring()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#execfile" title="execfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">execfile()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#issubclass" title="issubclass"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">issubclass()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">print()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">super()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#bin" title="bin"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">bin()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#file" title="file"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">file()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">iter()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">property()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">tuple()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">bool()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#filter" title="filter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">filter()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#len" title="len"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">len()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">range()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">type()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">bytearray()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">float()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#func-list"><code class="docutils literal notranslate">list()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#raw_input" title="raw_input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">raw_input()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#unichr" title="unichr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">unichr()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#callable" title="callable"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">callable()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#format" title="format"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">format()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">locals()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#reduce" title="reduce"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">reduce()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#unicode" title="unicode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">unicode()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#chr" title="chr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">chr()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#func-frozenset"><code class="docutils literal notranslate">frozenset()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#long" title="long"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">long()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#reload" title="reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">reload()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#vars" title="vars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">vars()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">classmethod()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getattr()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">map()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#func-repr"><code class="docutils literal notranslate">repr()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#xrange" title="xrange"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">xrange()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#cmp" title="cmp"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">cmp()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#globals" title="globals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">globals()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#max" title="max"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">max()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#reversed" title="reversed"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">reversed()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">zip()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">compile()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#hasattr" title="hasattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">hasattr()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#func-memoryview"><code class="docutils literal notranslate">memoryview()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">round()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">__import__()</code></a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#complex" title="complex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">complex()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#hash" title="hash"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">hash()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#min" title="min"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">min()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#func-set"><code class="docutils literal notranslate">set()</code></a></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#delattr" title="delattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">delattr()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#help" title="help"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">help()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#next" title="next"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">next()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#setattr" title="setattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">setattr()</code></a></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-even"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#func-dict"><code class="docutils literal notranslate">dict()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#hex" title="hex"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">hex()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">object()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#slice" title="slice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">slice()</code></a></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="row-odd"><td><a class="reference internal" href="#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">dir()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#id" title="id"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">id()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#oct" title="oct"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">oct()</code></a></td>
<td><a class="reference internal" href="#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">sorted()</code></a></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
In addition, there are other four built-in functions that are no longer
considered essential: <a class="reference internal" href="#apply" title="apply"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">apply()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#buffer" title="buffer"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">buffer()</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="#coerce" title="coerce"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">coerce()</code></a>, and
<a class="reference internal" href="#intern" title="intern"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">intern()</code></a>. They are documented in the <a class="reference internal" href="#non-essential-built-in-funcs">Non-essential Built-in Functions</a>
section.
<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="abs">
abs(x)<a class="headerlink" href="#abs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the absolute value of a number. The argument may be a plain or long
integer or a floating point number. If the argument is a complex number, its
magnitude is returned.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="all">
all(iterable)<a class="headerlink" href="#all" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if all elements of the iterable are true (or if the iterable
is empty). Equivalent to:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def all(iterable):
 for element in iterable:
 if not element:
 return False
 return True
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.5.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="any">
any(iterable)<a class="headerlink" href="#any" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if any element of the iterable is true. If the iterable
is empty, return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>. Equivalent to:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def any(iterable):
 for element in iterable:
 if element:
 return True
 return False
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.5.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="basestring">
basestring()<a class="headerlink" href="#basestring" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This abstract type is the superclass for <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#unicode" title="unicode"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">unicode</code></a>. It
cannot be called or instantiated, but it can be used to test whether an object
is an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#unicode" title="unicode"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">unicode</code></a>. <code class="docutils literal notranslate">isinstance(obj,
basestring)</code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">isinstance(obj, (str, unicode))</code>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.3.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bin">
bin(x)<a class="headerlink" href="#bin" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Convert an integer number to a binary string. The result is a valid Python
expression. If x is not a Python <a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a> object, it has to define an
<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__index__()</code> method that returns an integer.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.6.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bool">
class bool([x])<a class="headerlink" href="#bool" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a Boolean value, i.e. one of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code>. x is converted
using the standard truth testing procedure. If x is false or omitted, this
returns <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate">False</code></a>; otherwise it returns <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate">True</code></a>. <a class="reference internal" href="#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bool</code></a> is
also a class, which is a subclass of <a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a>. Class <a class="reference internal" href="#bool" title="bool"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bool</code></a> cannot
be subclassed further. Its only instances are <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate">False</code></a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate">True</code></a>.
<div class="versionadded" id="index-0">
New in version 2.2.1.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.3: If no argument is given, this function returns <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate">False</code></a>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="bytearray">
class bytearray([source[, encoding[, errors]]])<a class="headerlink" href="#bytearray" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a new array of bytes. The <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">bytearray</code></a> class is a mutable
sequence of integers in the range 0 &lt;= x &lt; 256. It has most of the usual
methods of mutable sequences, described in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq-mutable">Mutable Sequence Types</a>, as well
as most methods that the <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">str</code></a> type has, see <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#string-methods">String Methods</a>.
The optional source parameter can be used to initialize the array in a few
different ways:
<ul class="simple">
<li>If it is unicode, you must also give the encoding (and optionally,
errors) parameters; <a class="reference internal" href="#bytearray" title="bytearray"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">bytearray()</code></a> then converts the unicode to
bytes using <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">unicode.encode()</code>.</li>
<li>If it is an integer, the array will have that size and will be
initialized with null bytes.</li>
<li>If it is an object conforming to the buffer interface, a read-only buffer
of the object will be used to initialize the bytes array.</li>
<li>If it is an iterable, it must be an iterable of integers in the range
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">0 &lt;= x &lt; 256</code>, which are used as the initial contents of the array.</li>
</ul>
Without an argument, an array of size 0 is created.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.6.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="callable">
callable(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#callable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return <a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#True" title="True"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate">True</code></a> if the object argument appears callable,
<a class="reference internal" href="constants.html#False" title="False"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate">False</code></a> if not. If this
returns true, it is still possible that a call fails, but if it is false,
calling object will never succeed. Note that classes are callable (calling a
class returns a new instance); class instances are callable if they have a
<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__call__()</code> method.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="chr">
chr(i)<a class="headerlink" href="#chr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a string of one character whose ASCII code is the integer i. For
example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">chr(97)</code> returns the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'a'</code>. This is the inverse of
<a class="reference internal" href="#ord" title="ord"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">ord()</code></a>. The argument must be in the range [0..255], inclusive;
<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code> will be raised if i is outside that range. See
also <a class="reference internal" href="#unichr" title="unichr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">unichr()</code></a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="classmethod">
classmethod(function)<a class="headerlink" href="#classmethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a class method for function.
A class method receives the class as implicit first argument, just like an
instance method receives the instance. To declare a class method, use this
idiom:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>class C(object):
 @classmethod
 def f(cls, arg1, arg2, ...):
 ...
</pre></div>
</div>
The <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&#64;classmethod</code> form is a function <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator">decorator</a> – see
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#function">Function definitions</a> for details.
A class method can be called either on the class (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">C.f()</code>) or on an instance (such
as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">C().f()</code>). The instance is ignored except for its class. If a class
method is called for a derived class, the derived class object is passed as the
implied first argument.
Class methods are different than C++ or Java static methods. If you want those,
see <a class="reference internal" href="#staticmethod" title="staticmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">staticmethod()</code></a>.
For more information on class methods, see <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#types">The standard type hierarchy</a>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.2.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.4: Function decorator syntax added.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="cmp">
cmp(x, y)<a class="headerlink" href="#cmp" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Compare the two objects x and y and return an integer according to the
outcome. The return value is negative if <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x &lt; y</code>, zero if <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x == y</code> and
strictly positive if <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x &gt; y</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="compile">
compile(source, filename, mode[, flags[, dont_inherit]])<a class="headerlink" href="#compile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Compile the source into a code or AST object. Code objects can be executed
by an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#exec"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">exec</code></a> statement or evaluated by a call to <a class="reference internal" href="#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code></a>.
source can either be a Unicode string, a Latin-1 encoded string or an
AST object.
Refer to the <a class="reference internal" href="ast.html#module-ast" title="ast: Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">ast</code></a> module documentation for information on how to work
with AST objects.
The filename argument should give the file from which the code was read;
pass some recognizable value if it wasn’t read from a file (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'&lt;string&gt;'</code> is
commonly used).
The mode argument specifies what kind of code must be compiled; it can be
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'exec'</code> if source consists of a sequence of statements, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'eval'</code> if it
consists of a single expression, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'single'</code> if it consists of a single
interactive statement (in the latter case, expression statements that
evaluate to something other than <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> will be printed).
The optional arguments flags and dont_inherit control which future
statements (see <a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0236">PEP 236</a>) affect the compilation of source. If neither
is present (or both are zero) the code is compiled with those future
statements that are in effect in the code that is calling <a class="reference internal" href="#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">compile()</code></a>. If the
flags argument is given and dont_inherit is not (or is zero) then the
future statements specified by the flags argument are used in addition to
those that would be used anyway. If dont_inherit is a non-zero integer then
the flags argument is it – the future statements in effect around the call
to compile are ignored.
Future statements are specified by bits which can be bitwise ORed together to
specify multiple statements. The bitfield required to specify a given feature
can be found as the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">compiler_flag</code> attribute on
the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">_Feature</code> instance in the <a class="reference internal" href="__future__.html#module-__future__" title="__future__: Future statement definitions"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">__future__</code></a> module.
This function raises <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">SyntaxError</code> if the compiled source is invalid,
and <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code> if the source contains null bytes.
If you want to parse Python code into its AST representation, see
<a class="reference internal" href="ast.html#ast.parse" title="ast.parse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">ast.parse()</code></a>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
When compiling a string with multi-line code in <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'single'</code> or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'eval'</code> mode, input must be terminated by at least one newline
character. This is to facilitate detection of incomplete and complete
statements in the <a class="reference internal" href="code.html#module-code" title="code: Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">code</code></a> module.
</div>
<div class="admonition warning">
Warning
It is possible to crash the Python interpreter with a
sufficiently large/complex string when compiling to an AST
object due to stack depth limitations in Python’s AST compiler.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.3: The flags and dont_inherit arguments were added.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.6: Support for compiling AST objects.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.7: Allowed use of Windows and Mac newlines. Also input in <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'exec'</code> mode
does not have to end in a newline anymore.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="complex">
class complex([real[, imag]])<a class="headerlink" href="#complex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a complex number with the value real + imag*1j or convert a string or
number to a complex number. If the first parameter is a string, it will be
interpreted as a complex number and the function must be called without a second
parameter. The second parameter can never be a string. Each argument may be any
numeric type (including complex). If imag is omitted, it defaults to zero and
the function serves as a numeric conversion function like <a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">int()</code></a>,
<a class="reference internal" href="#long" title="long"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">long()</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#float" title="float"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">float()</code></a>. If both arguments are omitted, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0j</code>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
When converting from a string, the string must not contain whitespace
around the central <code class="docutils literal notranslate">+</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-</code> operator. For example,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">complex('1+2j')</code> is fine, but <code class="docutils literal notranslate">complex('1 + 2j')</code> raises
<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code>.
</div>
The complex type is described in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesnumeric">Numeric Types — int, float, long, complex</a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="delattr">
delattr(object, name)<a class="headerlink" href="#delattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This is a relative of <a class="reference internal" href="#setattr" title="setattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">setattr()</code></a>. The arguments are an object and a
string. The string must be the name of one of the object’s attributes. The
function deletes the named attribute, provided the object allows it. For
example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">delattr(x, 'foobar')</code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">del x.foobar</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
class dict(**kwarg)</dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
class dict(mapping, **kwarg)</dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
class dict(iterable, **kwarg)</dt>
<dd>Create a new dictionary. The <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a> object is the dictionary class.
See <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesmapping">Mapping Types — dict</a> for documentation about this class.
For other containers see the built-in <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code>, <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a>, and
<a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code></a> classes, as well as the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: High-performance datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">collections</code></a> module.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="dir">
dir([object])<a class="headerlink" href="#dir" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Without arguments, return the list of names in the current local scope. With an
argument, attempt to return a list of valid attributes for that object.
If the object has a method named <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__dir__()</code>, this method will be called and
must return the list of attributes. This allows objects that implement a custom
<code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">__getattr__()</code> or <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">__getattribute__()</code> function to customize the way
<a class="reference internal" href="#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">dir()</code></a> reports their attributes.
If the object does not provide <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__dir__()</code>, the function tries its best to
gather information from the object’s <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__dict__</code></a> attribute, if defined, and
from its type object. The resulting list is not necessarily complete, and may
be inaccurate when the object has a custom <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">__getattr__()</code>.
The default <a class="reference internal" href="#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">dir()</code></a> mechanism behaves differently with different types of
objects, as it attempts to produce the most relevant, rather than complete,
information:
<ul class="simple">
<li>If the object is a module object, the list contains the names of the module’s
attributes.</li>
<li>If the object is a type or class object, the list contains the names of its
attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its bases.</li>
<li>Otherwise, the list contains the object’s attributes’ names, the names of its
class’s attributes, and recursively of the attributes of its class’s base
classes.</li>
</ul>
The resulting list is sorted alphabetically. For example:
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; import struct
&gt;&gt;&gt; dir() # show the names in the module namespace
[&#39;__builtins__&#39;, &#39;__doc__&#39;, &#39;__name__&#39;, &#39;struct&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; dir(struct) # show the names in the struct module
[&#39;Struct&#39;, &#39;__builtins__&#39;, &#39;__doc__&#39;, &#39;__file__&#39;, &#39;__name__&#39;,
 &#39;__package__&#39;, &#39;_clearcache&#39;, &#39;calcsize&#39;, &#39;error&#39;, &#39;pack&#39;, &#39;pack_into&#39;,
 &#39;unpack&#39;, &#39;unpack_from&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; class Shape(object):
 def __dir__(self):
 return [&#39;area&#39;, &#39;perimeter&#39;, &#39;location&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; s = Shape()
&gt;&gt;&gt; dir(s)
[&#39;area&#39;, &#39;perimeter&#39;, &#39;location&#39;]
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="admonition note">
Note
Because <a class="reference internal" href="#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">dir()</code></a> is supplied primarily as a convenience for use at an
interactive prompt, it tries to supply an interesting set of names more than it
tries to supply a rigorously or consistently defined set of names, and its
detailed behavior may change across releases. For example, metaclass attributes
are not in the result list when the argument is a class.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="divmod">
divmod(a, b)<a class="headerlink" href="#divmod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Take two (non complex) numbers as arguments and return a pair of numbers
consisting of their quotient and remainder when using long division. With mixed
operand types, the rules for binary arithmetic operators apply. For plain and
long integers, the result is the same as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(a // b, a % b)</code>. For floating point
numbers the result is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(q, a % b)</code>, where q is usually <code class="docutils literal notranslate">math.floor(a / b)</code>
but may be 1 less than that. In any case <code class="docutils literal notranslate">q * b + a % b</code> is very close to
a, if <code class="docutils literal notranslate">a % b</code> is non-zero it has the same sign as b, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0 &lt;= abs(a % b)
&lt; abs(b)</code>.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.3: Using <a class="reference internal" href="#divmod" title="divmod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">divmod()</code></a> with complex numbers is deprecated.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="enumerate">
enumerate(sequence, start=0)<a class="headerlink" href="#enumerate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return an enumerate object. sequence must be a sequence, an
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator">iterator</a>, or some other object which supports iteration. The
<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">next()</code> method of the iterator returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#enumerate" title="enumerate"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">enumerate()</code></a> returns a
tuple containing a count (from start which defaults to 0) and the
values obtained from iterating over sequence:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; seasons = [&#39;Spring&#39;, &#39;Summer&#39;, &#39;Fall&#39;, &#39;Winter&#39;]
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(enumerate(seasons))
[(0, &#39;Spring&#39;), (1, &#39;Summer&#39;), (2, &#39;Fall&#39;), (3, &#39;Winter&#39;)]
&gt;&gt;&gt; list(enumerate(seasons, start=1))
[(1, &#39;Spring&#39;), (2, &#39;Summer&#39;), (3, &#39;Fall&#39;), (4, &#39;Winter&#39;)]
</pre></div>
</div>
Equivalent to:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def enumerate(sequence, start=0):
 n = start
 for elem in sequence:
 yield n, elem
 n += 1
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.3.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.6: The start parameter was added.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="eval">
eval(expression[, globals[, locals]])<a class="headerlink" href="#eval" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The arguments are a Unicode or Latin-1 encoded string and optional
globals and locals. If provided, globals must be a dictionary.
If provided, locals can be any mapping object.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.4: formerly locals was required to be a dictionary.
</div>
The expression argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python expression
(technically speaking, a condition list) using the globals and locals
dictionaries as global and local namespace. If the globals dictionary is
present and lacks ‘__builtins__’, the current globals are copied into globals
before expression is parsed. This means that expression normally has full
access to the standard <a class="reference internal" href="__builtin__.html#module-__builtin__" title="__builtin__: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">__builtin__</code></a> module and restricted environments are
propagated. If the locals dictionary is omitted it defaults to the globals
dictionary. If both dictionaries are omitted, the expression is executed in the
environment where <a class="reference internal" href="#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code></a> is called. The return value is the result of
the evaluated expression. Syntax errors are reported as exceptions. Example:
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; x = 1
&gt;&gt;&gt; print eval(&#39;x+1&#39;)
2
</pre></div>
</div>
This function can also be used to execute arbitrary code objects (such as
those created by <a class="reference internal" href="#compile" title="compile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">compile()</code></a>). In this case pass a code object instead
of a string. If the code object has been compiled with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'exec'</code> as the
mode argument, <a class="reference internal" href="#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code></a>'s return value will be <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>.
Hints: dynamic execution of statements is supported by the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#exec"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">exec</code></a>
statement. Execution of statements from a file is supported by the
<a class="reference internal" href="#execfile" title="execfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">execfile()</code></a> function. The <a class="reference internal" href="#globals" title="globals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">globals()</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">locals()</code></a> functions
returns the current global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be
useful to pass around for use by <a class="reference internal" href="#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#execfile" title="execfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">execfile()</code></a>.
See <a class="reference internal" href="ast.html#ast.literal_eval" title="ast.literal_eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">ast.literal_eval()</code></a> for a function that can safely evaluate strings
with expressions containing only literals.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="execfile">
execfile(filename[, globals[, locals]])<a class="headerlink" href="#execfile" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This function is similar to the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#exec"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">exec</code></a> statement, but parses a file
instead of a string. It is different from the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">import</code></a> statement in
that it does not use the module administration — it reads the file
unconditionally and does not create a new module. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id1">1</a>
The arguments are a file name and two optional dictionaries. The file is parsed
and evaluated as a sequence of Python statements (similarly to a module) using
the globals and locals dictionaries as global and local namespace. If
provided, locals can be any mapping object. Remember that at module level,
globals and locals are the same dictionary. If two separate objects are
passed as globals and locals, the code will be executed as if it were
embedded in a class definition.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.4: formerly locals was required to be a dictionary.
</div>
If the locals dictionary is omitted it defaults to the globals dictionary.
If both dictionaries are omitted, the expression is executed in the environment
where <a class="reference internal" href="#execfile" title="execfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">execfile()</code></a> is called. The return value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The default locals act as described for function <a class="reference internal" href="#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">locals()</code></a> below:
modifications to the default locals dictionary should not be attempted. Pass
an explicit locals dictionary if you need to see effects of the code on
locals after function <a class="reference internal" href="#execfile" title="execfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">execfile()</code></a> returns. <a class="reference internal" href="#execfile" title="execfile"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">execfile()</code></a> cannot be
used reliably to modify a function’s locals.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="file">
file(name[, mode[, buffering]])<a class="headerlink" href="#file" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Constructor function for the <a class="reference internal" href="#file" title="file"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">file</code></a> type, described further in section
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bltin-file-objects">File Objects</a>. The constructor’s arguments are the same as those
of the <a class="reference internal" href="#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">open()</code></a> built-in function described below.
When opening a file, it’s preferable to use <a class="reference internal" href="#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">open()</code></a> instead of invoking
this constructor directly. <a class="reference internal" href="#file" title="file"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">file</code></a> is more suited to type testing (for
example, writing <code class="docutils literal notranslate">isinstance(f, file)</code>).
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.2.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="filter">
filter(function, iterable)<a class="headerlink" href="#filter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Construct a list from those elements of iterable for which function returns
true. iterable may be either a sequence, a container which supports
iteration, or an iterator. If iterable is a string or a tuple, the result
also has that type; otherwise it is always a list. If function is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>,
the identity function is assumed, that is, all elements of iterable that are
false are removed.
Note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">filter(function, iterable)</code> is equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[item for item in
iterable if function(item)]</code> if function is not <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[item for item
in iterable if item]</code> if function is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>.
See <a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.ifilter" title="itertools.ifilter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">itertools.ifilter()</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.ifilterfalse" title="itertools.ifilterfalse"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">itertools.ifilterfalse()</code></a> for iterator
versions of this function, including a variation that filters for elements
where the function returns false.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="float">
class float([x])<a class="headerlink" href="#float" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a floating point number constructed from a number or string x.
If the argument is a string, it
must contain a possibly signed decimal or floating point number, possibly
embedded in whitespace. The argument may also be [+|-]nan or [+|-]inf.
Otherwise, the argument may be a plain or long integer
or a floating point number, and a floating point number with the same value
(within Python’s floating point precision) is returned. If no argument is
given, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0.0</code>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
When passing in a string, values for NaN and Infinity may be returned, depending
on the underlying C library. Float accepts the strings nan, inf and -inf for
NaN and positive or negative infinity. The case and a leading + are ignored as
well as a leading - is ignored for NaN. Float always represents NaN and infinity
as nan, inf or -inf.
</div>
The float type is described in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesnumeric">Numeric Types — int, float, long, complex</a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="format">
format(value[, format_spec])<a class="headerlink" href="#format" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Convert a value to a “formatted” representation, as controlled by
format_spec. The interpretation of format_spec will depend on the type
of the value argument, however there is a standard formatting syntax that
is used by most built-in types: <a class="reference internal" href="string.html#formatspec">Format Specification Mini-Language</a>.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">format(value, format_spec)</code> merely calls
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">value.__format__(format_spec)</code>.
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.6.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
class frozenset([iterable])</dt>
<dd>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a> object, optionally with elements taken from
iterable. <code class="docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code> is a built-in class. See <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#types-set">Set Types — set, frozenset</a> for documentation about this class.
For other containers see the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code>,
<a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a> classes, as well as the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: High-performance datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">collections</code></a>
module.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.4.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="getattr">
getattr(object, name[, default])<a class="headerlink" href="#getattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the value of the named attribute of object. name must be a string.
If the string is the name of one of the object’s attributes, the result is the
value of that attribute. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">getattr(x, 'foobar')</code> is equivalent to
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">x.foobar</code>. If the named attribute does not exist, default is returned if
provided, otherwise <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">AttributeError</code> is raised.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="globals">
globals()<a class="headerlink" href="#globals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a dictionary representing the current global symbol table. This is always
the dictionary of the current module (inside a function or method, this is the
module where it is defined, not the module from which it is called).
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="hasattr">
hasattr(object, name)<a class="headerlink" href="#hasattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The arguments are an object and a string. The result is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code> if the string
is the name of one of the object’s attributes, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">False</code> if not. (This is
implemented by calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate">getattr(object, name)</code> and seeing whether it raises an
exception or not.)
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="hash">
hash(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#hash" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the hash value of the object (if it has one). Hash values are integers.
They are used to quickly compare dictionary keys during a dictionary lookup.
Numeric values that compare equal have the same hash value (even if they are of
different types, as is the case for 1 and 1.0).
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="help">
help([object])<a class="headerlink" href="#help" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Invoke the built-in help system. (This function is intended for interactive
use.) If no argument is given, the interactive help system starts on the
interpreter console. If the argument is a string, then the string is looked up
as the name of a module, function, class, method, keyword, or documentation
topic, and a help page is printed on the console. If the argument is any other
kind of object, a help page on the object is generated.
This function is added to the built-in namespace by the <a class="reference internal" href="site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">site</code></a> module.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.2.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="hex">
hex(x)<a class="headerlink" href="#hex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Convert an integer number (of any size) to a lowercase hexadecimal string
prefixed with “0x”, for example:
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; hex(255)
&#39;0xff&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; hex(-42)
&#39;-0x2a&#39;
&gt;&gt;&gt; hex(1L)
&#39;0x1L&#39;
</pre></div>
</div>
If x is not a Python <a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">int</code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="#long" title="long"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">long</code></a> object, it has to
define a __hex__() method that returns a string.
See also <a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">int()</code></a> for converting a hexadecimal string to an
integer using a base of 16.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
To obtain a hexadecimal string representation for a float, use the
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#float.hex" title="float.hex"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">float.hex()</code></a> method.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.4: Formerly only returned an unsigned literal.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="id">
id(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#id" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the “identity” of an object. This is an integer (or long integer) which
is guaranteed to be unique and constant for this object during its lifetime.
Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may have the same <a class="reference internal" href="#id" title="id"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">id()</code></a>
value.
<div class="impl-detail compound">
CPython implementation detail: This is the address of the object in memory.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="input">
input([prompt])<a class="headerlink" href="#input" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Equivalent to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">eval(raw_input(prompt))</code>.
This function does not catch user errors. If the input is not syntactically
valid, a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">SyntaxError</code> will be raised. Other exceptions may be raised if
there is an error during evaluation.
If the <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">readline</code></a> module was loaded, then <a class="reference internal" href="#input" title="input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">input()</code></a> will use it to
provide elaborate line editing and history features.
Consider using the <a class="reference internal" href="#raw_input" title="raw_input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">raw_input()</code></a> function for general input from users.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="int">
class int(x=0)<a class="headerlink" href="#int" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
class int(x, base=10)</dt>
<dd>Return an integer object constructed from a number or string x, or return <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code> if no
arguments are given. If x is a number, it can be a plain integer, a long
integer, or a floating point number. If x is floating point, the conversion
truncates towards zero. If the argument is outside the integer range, the
function returns a long object instead.
If x is not a number or if base is given, then x must be a string or
Unicode object representing an <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/lexical_analysis.html#integers">integer literal</a> in radix
base. Optionally, the literal can be
preceded by <code class="docutils literal notranslate">+</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-</code> (with no space in between) and surrounded by
whitespace. A base-n literal consists of the digits 0 to n-1, with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">a</code>
to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">z</code> (or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">A</code> to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">Z</code>) having
values 10 to 35. The default base is 10. The allowed values are 0 and 2–36.
Base-2, -8, and -16 literals can be optionally prefixed with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0b</code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate">0B</code>,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">0o</code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate">0O</code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>, or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0x</code>/<code class="docutils literal notranslate">0X</code>, as with integer literals in code.
Base 0 means to interpret the string exactly as an integer literal, so that
the actual base is 2, 8, 10, or 16.
The integer type is described in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesnumeric">Numeric Types — int, float, long, complex</a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="isinstance">
isinstance(object, classinfo)<a class="headerlink" href="#isinstance" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if the object argument is an instance of the classinfo argument,
or of a (direct, indirect or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class">virtual</a>) subclass
thereof. Also return true if classinfo
is a type object (new-style class) and object is an object of that type or of
a (direct, indirect or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class">virtual</a>) subclass
thereof. If object is not a class instance or
an object of the given type, the function always returns false.
If classinfo is a tuple of class or type objects (or recursively, other
such tuples), return true if object is an instance of any of the classes
or types. If classinfo is not a class, type, or tuple of classes, types,
and such tuples, a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code> exception is raised.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.2: Support for a tuple of type information was added.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="issubclass">
issubclass(class, classinfo)<a class="headerlink" href="#issubclass" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return true if class is a subclass (direct, indirect or <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-abstract-base-class">virtual</a>) of classinfo. A
class is considered a subclass of itself. classinfo may be a tuple of class
objects, in which case every entry in classinfo will be checked. In any other
case, a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code> exception is raised.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.3: Support for a tuple of type information was added.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="iter">
iter(o[, sentinel])<a class="headerlink" href="#iter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return an <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator">iterator</a> object. The first argument is interpreted very differently
depending on the presence of the second argument. Without a second argument, o
must be a collection object which supports the iteration protocol (the
<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__iter__()</code> method), or it must support the sequence protocol (the
<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__getitem__()</code> method with integer arguments starting at <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>). If it
does not support either of those protocols, <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code> is raised. If the
second argument, sentinel, is given, then o must be a callable object. The
iterator created in this case will call o with no arguments for each call to
its <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.next" title="iterator.next"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">next()</code></a> method; if the value returned is equal to sentinel,
<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">StopIteration</code> will be raised, otherwise the value will be returned.
One useful application of the second form of <a class="reference internal" href="#iter" title="iter"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">iter()</code></a> is to read lines of
a file until a certain line is reached. The following example reads a file
until the <a class="reference internal" href="io.html#io.TextIOBase.readline" title="io.TextIOBase.readline"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">readline()</code></a> method returns an empty string:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>with open(&#39;mydata.txt&#39;) as fp:
 for line in iter(fp.readline, &#39;&#39;):
 process_line(line)
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.2.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="len">
len(s)<a class="headerlink" href="#len" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the length (the number of items) of an object. The argument may be a
sequence (such as a string, bytes, tuple, list, or range) or a collection
(such as a dictionary, set, or frozen set).
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
class list([iterable])</dt>
<dd>Return a list whose items are the same and in the same order as iterable’s
items. iterable may be either a sequence, a container that supports
iteration, or an iterator object. If iterable is already a list, a copy is
made and returned, similar to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">iterable[:]</code>. For instance, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">list('abc')</code>
returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">['a', 'b', 'c']</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">list( (1, 2, 3) )</code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[1, 2, 3]</code>. If
no argument is given, returns a new empty list, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[]</code>.
<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code> is a mutable sequence type, as documented in
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq">Sequence Types — str, unicode, list, tuple, bytearray, buffer, xrange</a>. For other containers see the built in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a>,
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code></a> classes, and the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: High-performance datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">collections</code></a> module.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="locals">
locals()<a class="headerlink" href="#locals" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Update and return a dictionary representing the current local symbol table.
Free variables are returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">locals()</code></a> when it is called in function
blocks, but not in class blocks.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The contents of this dictionary should not be modified; changes may not
affect the values of local and free variables used by the interpreter.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="long">
class long(x=0)<a class="headerlink" href="#long" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
class long(x, base=10)</dt>
<dd>Return a long integer object constructed from a string or number x.
If the argument is a string, it
must contain a possibly signed number of arbitrary size, possibly embedded in
whitespace. The base argument is interpreted in the same way as for
<a class="reference internal" href="#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">int()</code></a>, and may only be given when x is a string. Otherwise, the argument
may be a plain or long integer or a floating point number, and a long integer
with the same value is returned. Conversion of floating point numbers to
integers truncates (towards zero). If no arguments are given, returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0L</code>.
The long type is described in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesnumeric">Numeric Types — int, float, long, complex</a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="map">
map(function, iterable, ...)<a class="headerlink" href="#map" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Apply function to every item of iterable and return a list of the results.
If additional iterable arguments are passed, function must take that many
arguments and is applied to the items from all iterables in parallel. If one
iterable is shorter than another it is assumed to be extended with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>
items. If function is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, the identity function is assumed; if there
are multiple arguments, <a class="reference internal" href="#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">map()</code></a> returns a list consisting of tuples
containing the corresponding items from all iterables (a kind of transpose
operation). The iterable arguments may be a sequence or any iterable object;
the result is always a list.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="max">
max(iterable[, key])<a class="headerlink" href="#max" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
max(arg1, arg2, *args[, key])</dt>
<dd>Return the largest item in an iterable or the largest of two or more
arguments.
If one positional argument is provided, iterable must be a non-empty
iterable (such as a non-empty string, tuple or list). The largest item
in the iterable is returned. If two or more positional arguments are
provided, the largest of the positional arguments is returned.
The optional key argument specifies a one-argument ordering function like that
used for <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">list.sort()</code>. The key argument, if supplied, must be in keyword
form (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">max(a,b,c,key=func)</code>).
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.5: Added support for the optional key argument.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
memoryview(obj)</dt>
<dd>Return a “memory view” object created from the given argument. See
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typememoryview">memoryview type</a> for more information.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="min">
min(iterable[, key])<a class="headerlink" href="#min" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
min(arg1, arg2, *args[, key])</dt>
<dd>Return the smallest item in an iterable or the smallest of two or more
arguments.
If one positional argument is provided, iterable must be a non-empty
iterable (such as a non-empty string, tuple or list). The smallest item
in the iterable is returned. If two or more positional arguments are
provided, the smallest of the positional arguments is returned.
The optional key argument specifies a one-argument ordering function like that
used for <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">list.sort()</code>. The key argument, if supplied, must be in keyword
form (for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">min(a,b,c,key=func)</code>).
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.5: Added support for the optional key argument.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="next">
next(iterator[, default])<a class="headerlink" href="#next" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Retrieve the next item from the iterator by calling its
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#iterator.next" title="iterator.next"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">next()</code></a> method. If default is given, it is returned if the
iterator is exhausted, otherwise <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">StopIteration</code> is raised.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.6.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="object">
class object<a class="headerlink" href="#object" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a new featureless object. <a class="reference internal" href="#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">object</code></a> is a base for all new style
classes. It has the methods that are common to all instances of new style
classes.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.2.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.3: This function does not accept any arguments. Formerly, it accepted arguments but
ignored them.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="oct">
oct(x)<a class="headerlink" href="#oct" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Convert an integer number (of any size) to an octal string. The result is a
valid Python expression.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.4: Formerly only returned an unsigned literal.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="open">
open(name[, mode[, buffering]])<a class="headerlink" href="#open" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Open a file, returning an object of the <a class="reference internal" href="#file" title="file"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">file</code></a> type described in
section <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#bltin-file-objects">File Objects</a>. If the file cannot be opened,
<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">IOError</code> is raised. When opening a file, it’s preferable to use
<a class="reference internal" href="#open" title="open"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">open()</code></a> instead of invoking the <a class="reference internal" href="#file" title="file"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">file</code></a> constructor directly.
The first two arguments are the same as for <code class="docutils literal notranslate">stdio</code>’s <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">fopen()</code>:
name is the file name to be opened, and mode is a string indicating how
the file is to be opened.
The most commonly-used values of mode are <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'r'</code> for reading, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'w'</code> for
writing (truncating the file if it already exists), and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'a'</code> for appending
(which on some Unix systems means that all writes append to the end of the
file regardless of the current seek position). If mode is omitted, it
defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'r'</code>. The default is to use text mode, which may convert
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'\n'</code> characters to a platform-specific representation on writing and back
on reading. Thus, when opening a binary file, you should append <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'b'</code> to
the mode value to open the file in binary mode, which will improve
portability. (Appending <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'b'</code> is useful even on systems that don’t treat
binary and text files differently, where it serves as documentation.) See below
for more possible values of mode.
The optional buffering argument specifies the file’s desired buffer size: 0
means unbuffered, 1 means line buffered, any other positive value means use a
buffer of (approximately) that size (in bytes). A negative buffering means
to use the system default, which is usually line buffered for tty devices and
fully buffered for other files. If omitted, the system default is used. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id4" id="id2">2</a>
Modes <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'r+'</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'w+'</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'a+'</code> open the file for updating (reading and writing);
note that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'w+'</code> truncates the file. Append <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'b'</code> to the mode to open the file in
binary mode, on systems that differentiate between binary and text files; on
systems that don’t have this distinction, adding the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'b'</code> has no effect.
In addition to the standard <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">fopen()</code> values mode may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'U'</code> or
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'rU'</code>. Python is usually built with <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-universal-newlines">universal newlines</a> support;
supplying <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'U'</code> opens the file as a text file, but lines may be terminated
by any of the following: the Unix end-of-line convention <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'\n'</code>, the
Macintosh convention <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'\r'</code>, or the Windows convention <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'\r\n'</code>. All of
these external representations are seen as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'\n'</code> by the Python program.
If Python is built without universal newlines support a mode with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'U'</code>
is the same as normal text mode. Note that file objects so opened also have
an attribute called <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">newlines</code> which has a value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code> (if no
newlines have yet been seen), <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'\n'</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'\r'</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'\r\n'</code>, or a tuple
containing all the newline types seen.
Python enforces that the mode, after stripping <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'U'</code>, begins with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'r'</code>,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">'w'</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'a'</code>.
Python provides many file handling modules including
<a class="reference internal" href="fileinput.html#module-fileinput" title="fileinput: Loop over standard input or a list of files."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">fileinput</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="os.html#module-os" title="os: Miscellaneous operating system interfaces."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">os</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="os.path.html#module-os.path" title="os.path: Operations on pathnames."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">os.path</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="tempfile.html#module-tempfile" title="tempfile: Generate temporary files and directories."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">tempfile</code></a>, and
<a class="reference internal" href="shutil.html#module-shutil" title="shutil: High-level file operations, including copying."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">shutil</code></a>.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.5: Restriction on first letter of mode string introduced.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="ord">
ord(c)<a class="headerlink" href="#ord" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Given a string of length one, return an integer representing the Unicode code
point of the character when the argument is a unicode object, or the value of
the byte when the argument is an 8-bit string. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">ord('a')</code> returns
the integer <code class="docutils literal notranslate">97</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">ord(u'\u2020')</code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">8224</code>. This is the inverse of
<a class="reference internal" href="#chr" title="chr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">chr()</code></a> for 8-bit strings and of <a class="reference internal" href="#unichr" title="unichr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">unichr()</code></a> for unicode objects. If a
unicode argument is given and Python was built with UCS2 Unicode, then the
character’s code point must be in the range [0..65535] inclusive; otherwise the
string length is two, and a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code> will be raised.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="pow">
pow(x, y[, z])<a class="headerlink" href="#pow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return x to the power y; if z is present, return x to the power y,
modulo z (computed more efficiently than <code class="docutils literal notranslate">pow(x, y) % z</code>). The two-argument
form <code class="docutils literal notranslate">pow(x, y)</code> is equivalent to using the power operator: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x**y</code>.
The arguments must have numeric types. With mixed operand types, the coercion
rules for binary arithmetic operators apply. For int and long int operands, the
result has the same type as the operands (after coercion) unless the second
argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are converted to float and a
float result is delivered. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">10**2</code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">100</code>, but
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">10**-2</code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0.01</code>. (This last feature was added in Python 2.2. In
Python 2.1 and before, if both arguments were of integer types and the second
argument was negative, an exception was raised.) If the second argument is
negative, the third argument must be omitted. If z is present, x and y
must be of integer types, and y must be non-negative. (This restriction was
added in Python 2.2. In Python 2.1 and before, floating 3-argument <code class="docutils literal notranslate">pow()</code>
returned platform-dependent results depending on floating-point rounding
accidents.)
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="print">
print(*objects, sep=' ', end='\\n', file=sys.stdout)<a class="headerlink" href="#print" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Print objects to the stream file, separated by sep and followed by
end. sep, end and file, if present, must be given as keyword
arguments.
All non-keyword arguments are converted to strings like <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">str()</code></a> does and
written to the stream, separated by sep and followed by end. Both sep
and end must be strings; they can also be <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, which means to use the
default values. If no objects are given, <a class="reference internal" href="#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">print()</code></a> will just write
end.
The file argument must be an object with a <code class="docutils literal notranslate">write(string)</code> method; if it
is not present or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>, <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#sys.stdout" title="sys.stdout"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate">sys.stdout</code></a> will be used. Output buffering
is determined by file. Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate">file.flush()</code> to ensure, for instance,
immediate appearance on a screen.
<div class="admonition note">
Note
This function is not normally available as a built-in since the name
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">print</code> is recognized as the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#print"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">print</code></a> statement. To disable the
statement and use the <a class="reference internal" href="#print" title="print"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">print()</code></a> function, use this future statement at
the top of your module:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>from __future__ import print_function
</pre></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.6.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="property">
class property([fget[, fset[, fdel[, doc]]]])<a class="headerlink" href="#property" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a property attribute for <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-new-style-class">new-style class</a>es (classes that
derive from <a class="reference internal" href="#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">object</code></a>).
fget is a function for getting an attribute value. fset is a function
for setting an attribute value. fdel is a function for deleting an attribute
value. And doc creates a docstring for the attribute.
A typical use is to define a managed attribute <code class="docutils literal notranslate">x</code>:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>class C(object):
 def __init__(self):
 self._x = None

def getx(self):
 return self._x

def setx(self, value):
 self._x = value

def delx(self):
 del self._x

x = property(getx, setx, delx, &quot;I&#39;m the &#39;x&#39; property.&quot;)
</pre></div>
</div>
If c is an instance of C, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">c.x</code> will invoke the getter,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">c.x = value</code> will invoke the setter and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">del c.x</code> the deleter.
If given, doc will be the docstring of the property attribute. Otherwise, the
property will copy fget’s docstring (if it exists). This makes it possible to
create read-only properties easily using <a class="reference internal" href="#property" title="property"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">property()</code></a> as a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator">decorator</a>:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>class Parrot(object):
 def __init__(self):
 self._voltage = 100000

@property
 def voltage(self):
 &quot;&quot;&quot;Get the current voltage.&quot;&quot;&quot;
 return self._voltage
</pre></div>
</div>
The <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&#64;property</code> decorator turns the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">voltage()</code> method into a “getter”
for a read-only attribute with the same name, and it sets the docstring for
voltage to “Get the current voltage.”
A property object has <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">getter</code>, <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">setter</code>,
and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">deleter</code> methods usable as decorators that create a
copy of the property with the corresponding accessor function set to the
decorated function. This is best explained with an example:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>class C(object):
 def __init__(self):
 self._x = None

@property
 def x(self):
 &quot;&quot;&quot;I&#39;m the &#39;x&#39; property.&quot;&quot;&quot;
 return self._x

@x.setter
 def x(self, value):
 self._x = value

@x.deleter
 def x(self):
 del self._x
</pre></div>
</div>
This code is exactly equivalent to the first example. Be sure to give the
additional functions the same name as the original property (<code class="docutils literal notranslate">x</code> in this
case.)
The returned property object also has the attributes <code class="docutils literal notranslate">fget</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">fset</code>, and
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">fdel</code> corresponding to the constructor arguments.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.2.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.5: Use fget’s docstring if no doc given.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.6: The <code class="docutils literal notranslate">getter</code>, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">setter</code>, and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">deleter</code> attributes were added.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="range">
range(stop)<a class="headerlink" href="#range" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
range(start, stop[, step])</dt>
<dd>This is a versatile function to create lists containing arithmetic progressions.
It is most often used in <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#for"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">for</code></a> loops. The arguments must be plain
integers. If the step argument is omitted, it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">1</code>. If the
start argument is omitted, it defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>. The full form returns a list
of plain integers <code class="docutils literal notranslate">[start, start + step, start + 2 * step, ...]</code>. If step
is positive, the last element is the largest <code class="docutils literal notranslate">start + i * step</code> less than
stop; if step is negative, the last element is the smallest <code class="docutils literal notranslate">start + i *
step</code> greater than stop. step must not be zero (or else <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code>
is raised). Example:
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; range(10)
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
&gt;&gt;&gt; range(1, 11)
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
&gt;&gt;&gt; range(0, 30, 5)
[0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
&gt;&gt;&gt; range(0, 10, 3)
[0, 3, 6, 9]
&gt;&gt;&gt; range(0, -10, -1)
[0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
&gt;&gt;&gt; range(0)
[]
&gt;&gt;&gt; range(1, 0)
[]
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="raw_input">
raw_input([prompt])<a class="headerlink" href="#raw_input" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>If the prompt argument is present, it is written to standard output without a
trailing newline. The function then reads a line from input, converts it to a
string (stripping a trailing newline), and returns that. When EOF is read,
<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">EOFError</code> is raised. Example:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; s = raw_input(&#39;--&gt; &#39;)
--&gt; Monty Python&#39;s Flying Circus
&gt;&gt;&gt; s
&quot;Monty Python&#39;s Flying Circus&quot;
</pre></div>
</div>
If the <a class="reference internal" href="readline.html#module-readline" title="readline: GNU readline support for Python. (Unix)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">readline</code></a> module was loaded, then <a class="reference internal" href="#raw_input" title="raw_input"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">raw_input()</code></a> will use it to
provide elaborate line editing and history features.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="reduce">
reduce(function, iterable[, initializer])<a class="headerlink" href="#reduce" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Apply function of two arguments cumulatively to the items of iterable, from
left to right, so as to reduce the iterable to a single value. For example,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">reduce(lambda x, y: x+y, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])</code> calculates <code class="docutils literal notranslate">((((1+2)+3)+4)+5)</code>.
The left argument, x, is the accumulated value and the right argument, y, is
the update value from the iterable. If the optional initializer is present,
it is placed before the items of the iterable in the calculation, and serves as
a default when the iterable is empty. If initializer is not given and
iterable contains only one item, the first item is returned.
Roughly equivalent to:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>def reduce(function, iterable, initializer=None):
 it = iter(iterable)
 if initializer is None:
 try:
 initializer = next(it)
 except StopIteration:
 raise TypeError(&#39;reduce() of empty sequence with no initial value&#39;)
 accum_value = initializer
 for x in it:
 accum_value = function(accum_value, x)
 return accum_value
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="reload">
reload(module)<a class="headerlink" href="#reload" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Reload a previously imported module. The argument must be a module object, so
it must have been successfully imported before. This is useful if you have
edited the module source file using an external editor and want to try out the
new version without leaving the Python interpreter. The return value is the
module object (the same as the module argument).
When <code class="docutils literal notranslate">reload(module)</code> is executed:
<ul class="simple">
<li>Python modules’ code is recompiled and the module-level code reexecuted,
defining a new set of objects which are bound to names in the module’s
dictionary. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate">init</code> function of extension modules is not called a second
time.</li>
<li>As with all other objects in Python the old objects are only reclaimed after
their reference counts drop to zero.</li>
<li>The names in the module namespace are updated to point to any new or changed
objects.</li>
<li>Other references to the old objects (such as names external to the module) are
not rebound to refer to the new objects and must be updated in each namespace
where they occur if that is desired.</li>
</ul>
There are a number of other caveats:
When a module is reloaded, its dictionary (containing the module’s global
variables) is retained. Redefinitions of names will override the old
definitions, so this is generally not a problem. If the new version of a module
does not define a name that was defined by the old version, the old definition
remains. This feature can be used to the module’s advantage if it maintains a
global table or cache of objects — with a <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#try"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">try</code></a> statement it can test
for the table’s presence and skip its initialization if desired:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>try:
 cache
except NameError:
 cache = {}
</pre></div>
</div>
It is generally not very useful to reload built-in or dynamically loaded
modules. Reloading <a class="reference internal" href="sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">sys</code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="__main__.html#module-__main__" title="__main__: The environment where the top-level script is run."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">__main__</code></a>, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">builtins</code> and other
key modules is not recommended. In many cases extension modules are not
designed to be initialized more than once, and may fail in arbitrary ways
when reloaded.
If a module imports objects from another module using <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#from"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">from</code></a> …
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">import</code></a> …, calling <a class="reference internal" href="#reload" title="reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">reload()</code></a> for the other module does not
redefine the objects imported from it — one way around this is to re-execute
the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#from"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">from</code></a> statement, another is to use <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">import</code></a> and qualified
names (module.*name*) instead.
If a module instantiates instances of a class, reloading the module that defines
the class does not affect the method definitions of the instances — they
continue to use the old class definition. The same is true for derived classes.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="repr">
repr(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#repr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a string containing a printable representation of an object. This is
the same value yielded by conversions (reverse quotes). It is sometimes
useful to be able to access this operation as an ordinary function. For many
types, this function makes an attempt to return a string that would yield an
object with the same value when passed to <a class="reference internal" href="#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code></a>, otherwise the
representation is a string enclosed in angle brackets that contains the name
of the type of the object together with additional information often
including the name and address of the object. A class can control what this
function returns for its instances by defining a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__repr__()</code> method.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="reversed">
reversed(seq)<a class="headerlink" href="#reversed" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a reverse <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-iterator">iterator</a>. seq must be an object which has
a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__reversed__()</code> method or supports the sequence protocol (the
<code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__len__()</code> method and the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__getitem__()</code> method with integer
arguments starting at <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>).
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.4.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.6: Added the possibility to write a custom <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__reversed__()</code> method.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="round">
round(number[, ndigits])<a class="headerlink" href="#round" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the floating point value number rounded to ndigits digits after
the decimal point. If ndigits is omitted, it defaults to zero. The result
is a floating point number. Values are rounded to the closest multiple of
10 to the power minus ndigits; if two multiples are equally close,
rounding is done away from 0 (so, for example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">round(0.5)</code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">1.0</code> and
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">round(-0.5)</code> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-1.0</code>).
<div class="admonition note">
Note
The behavior of <a class="reference internal" href="#round" title="round"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">round()</code></a> for floats can be surprising: for example,
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">round(2.675, 2)</code> gives <code class="docutils literal notranslate">2.67</code> instead of the expected <code class="docutils literal notranslate">2.68</code>.
This is not a bug: it’s a result of the fact that most decimal fractions
can’t be represented exactly as a float. See <a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/floatingpoint.html#tut-fp-issues">Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations</a> for
more information.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
class set([iterable])</dt>
<dd>Return a new <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a> object, optionally with elements taken from
iterable. <code class="docutils literal notranslate">set</code> is a built-in class. See <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a> and
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#types-set">Set Types — set, frozenset</a> for documentation about this class.
For other containers see the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#frozenset" title="frozenset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">frozenset</code></a>, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code>,
<a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code></a>, and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a> classes, as well as the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: High-performance datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">collections</code></a>
module.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.4.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="setattr">
setattr(object, name, value)<a class="headerlink" href="#setattr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This is the counterpart of <a class="reference internal" href="#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getattr()</code></a>. The arguments are an object, a
string and an arbitrary value. The string may name an existing attribute or a
new attribute. The function assigns the value to the attribute, provided the
object allows it. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">setattr(x, 'foobar', 123)</code> is equivalent to
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">x.foobar = 123</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="slice">
class slice(stop)<a class="headerlink" href="#slice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
class slice(start, stop[, step])</dt>
<dd>Return a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-slice">slice</a> object representing the set of indices specified by
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">range(start, stop, step)</code>. The start and step arguments default to
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>. Slice objects have read-only data attributes <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">start</code>,
<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">stop</code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">step</code> which merely return the argument
values (or their default). They have no other explicit functionality;
however they are used by Numerical Python and other third party extensions.
Slice objects are also generated when extended indexing syntax is used. For
example: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">a[start:stop:step]</code> or <code class="docutils literal notranslate">a[start:stop, i]</code>. See
<a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.islice" title="itertools.islice"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">itertools.islice()</code></a> for an alternate version that returns an iterator.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="sorted">
sorted(iterable[, cmp[, key[, reverse]]])<a class="headerlink" href="#sorted" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a new sorted list from the items in iterable.
The optional arguments cmp, key, and reverse have the same meaning as
those for the <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">list.sort()</code> method (described in section
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq-mutable">Mutable Sequence Types</a>).
cmp specifies a custom comparison function of two arguments (iterable
elements) which should return a negative, zero or positive number depending on
whether the first argument is considered smaller than, equal to, or larger than
the second argument: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">cmp=lambda x,y: cmp(x.lower(), y.lower())</code>. The default
value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>.
key specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a comparison
key from each list element: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">key=str.lower</code>. The default value is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>
(compare the elements directly).
reverse is a boolean value. If set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">True</code>, then the list elements are
sorted as if each comparison were reversed.
In general, the key and reverse conversion processes are much faster
than specifying an equivalent cmp function. This is because cmp is
called multiple times for each list element while key and reverse touch
each element only once. Use <a class="reference internal" href="functools.html#functools.cmp_to_key" title="functools.cmp_to_key"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">functools.cmp_to_key()</code></a> to convert an
old-style cmp function to a key function.
The built-in <a class="reference internal" href="#sorted" title="sorted"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">sorted()</code></a> function is guaranteed to be stable. A sort is
stable if it guarantees not to change the relative order of elements that
compare equal — this is helpful for sorting in multiple passes (for
example, sort by department, then by salary grade).
For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see <a class="reference internal" href="../howto/sorting.html#sortinghowto">Sorting HOW TO</a>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.4.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="staticmethod">
staticmethod(function)<a class="headerlink" href="#staticmethod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a static method for function.
A static method does not receive an implicit first argument. To declare a static
method, use this idiom:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>class C(object):
 @staticmethod
 def f(arg1, arg2, ...):
 ...
</pre></div>
</div>
The <code class="docutils literal notranslate">&#64;staticmethod</code> form is a function <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-decorator">decorator</a> – see
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#function">Function definitions</a> for details.
A static method can be called either on the class (such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">C.f()</code>) or on an instance (such
as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">C().f()</code>).
Static methods in Python are similar to those found in Java or C++. Also see
<a class="reference internal" href="#classmethod" title="classmethod"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">classmethod()</code></a> for a variant that is useful for creating alternate
class constructors.
For more information on static methods, see <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#types">The standard type hierarchy</a>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.2.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.4: Function decorator syntax added.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="str">
class str(object='')<a class="headerlink" href="#str" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a string containing a nicely printable representation of an object. For
strings, this returns the string itself. The difference with <code class="docutils literal notranslate">repr(object)</code>
is that <code class="docutils literal notranslate">str(object)</code> does not always attempt to return a string that is
acceptable to <a class="reference internal" href="#eval" title="eval"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">eval()</code></a>; its goal is to return a printable string. If no
argument is given, returns the empty string, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">''</code>.
For more information on strings see <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq">Sequence Types — str, unicode, list, tuple, bytearray, buffer, xrange</a> which describes sequence
functionality (strings are sequences), and also the string-specific methods
described in the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#string-methods">String Methods</a> section. To output formatted strings
use template strings or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">%</code> operator described in the
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#string-formatting">String Formatting Operations</a> section. In addition see the <a class="reference internal" href="strings.html#stringservices">String Services</a>
section. See also <a class="reference internal" href="#unicode" title="unicode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">unicode()</code></a>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="sum">
sum(iterable[, start])<a class="headerlink" href="#sum" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Sums start and the items of an iterable from left to right and returns the
total. start defaults to <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code>. The iterable’s items are normally numbers,
and the start value is not allowed to be a string.
For some use cases, there are good alternatives to <a class="reference internal" href="#sum" title="sum"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">sum()</code></a>.
The preferred, fast way to concatenate a sequence of strings is by calling
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">''.join(sequence)</code>. To add floating point values with extended precision,
see <a class="reference internal" href="math.html#math.fsum" title="math.fsum"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">math.fsum()</code></a>. To concatenate a series of iterables, consider using
<a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#itertools.chain" title="itertools.chain"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">itertools.chain()</code></a>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.3.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="super">
super(type[, object-or-type])<a class="headerlink" href="#super" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a proxy object that delegates method calls to a parent or sibling
class of type. This is useful for accessing inherited methods that have
been overridden in a class. The search order is same as that used by
<a class="reference internal" href="#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getattr()</code></a> except that the type itself is skipped.
The <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#class.__mro__" title="class.__mro__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__mro__</code></a> attribute of the type lists the method
resolution search order used by both <a class="reference internal" href="#getattr" title="getattr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">getattr()</code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">super()</code></a>. The
attribute is dynamic and can change whenever the inheritance hierarchy is
updated.
If the second argument is omitted, the super object returned is unbound. If
the second argument is an object, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">isinstance(obj, type)</code> must be true. If
the second argument is a type, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">issubclass(type2, type)</code> must be true (this
is useful for classmethods).
<div class="admonition note">
Note
<a class="reference internal" href="#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">super()</code></a> only works for <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-new-style-class">new-style class</a>es.
</div>
There are two typical use cases for super. In a class hierarchy with
single inheritance, super can be used to refer to parent classes without
naming them explicitly, thus making the code more maintainable. This use
closely parallels the use of super in other programming languages.
The second use case is to support cooperative multiple inheritance in a
dynamic execution environment. This use case is unique to Python and is
not found in statically compiled languages or languages that only support
single inheritance. This makes it possible to implement “diamond diagrams”
where multiple base classes implement the same method. Good design dictates
that this method have the same calling signature in every case (because the
order of calls is determined at runtime, because that order adapts
to changes in the class hierarchy, and because that order can include
sibling classes that are unknown prior to runtime).
For both use cases, a typical superclass call looks like this:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>class C(B):
 def method(self, arg):
 super(C, self).method(arg)
</pre></div>
</div>
Note that <a class="reference internal" href="#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">super()</code></a> is implemented as part of the binding process for
explicit dotted attribute lookups such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">super().__getitem__(name)</code>.
It does so by implementing its own <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__getattribute__()</code> method for searching
classes in a predictable order that supports cooperative multiple inheritance.
Accordingly, <a class="reference internal" href="#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">super()</code></a> is undefined for implicit lookups using statements or
operators such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate">super()[name]</code>.
Also note that <a class="reference internal" href="#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">super()</code></a> is not limited to use inside methods. The two
argument form specifies the arguments exactly and makes the appropriate
references.
For practical suggestions on how to design cooperative classes using
<a class="reference internal" href="#super" title="super"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">super()</code></a>, see <a class="reference external" href="https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/">guide to using super()</a>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.2.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="tuple">
tuple([iterable])<a class="headerlink" href="#tuple" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a tuple whose items are the same and in the same order as iterable’s
items. iterable may be a sequence, a container that supports iteration, or an
iterator object. If iterable is already a tuple, it is returned unchanged.
For instance, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">tuple('abc')</code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">('a', 'b', 'c')</code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">tuple([1, 2,
3])</code> returns <code class="docutils literal notranslate">(1, 2, 3)</code>. If no argument is given, returns a new empty
tuple, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">()</code>.
<a class="reference internal" href="#tuple" title="tuple"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">tuple</code></a> is an immutable sequence type, as documented in
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq">Sequence Types — str, unicode, list, tuple, bytearray, buffer, xrange</a>. For other containers see the built in <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#dict" title="dict"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">dict</code></a>,
<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">list</code>, and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#set" title="set"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">set</code></a> classes, and the <a class="reference internal" href="collections.html#module-collections" title="collections: High-performance datatypes"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">collections</code></a> module.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py class">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="type">
class type(object)<a class="headerlink" href="#type" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
class type(name, bases, dict)</dt>
<dd>With one argument, return the type of an object. The return value is a
type object. The <a class="reference internal" href="#isinstance" title="isinstance"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">isinstance()</code></a> built-in function is recommended for
testing the type of an object.
With three arguments, return a new type object. This is essentially a
dynamic form of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/compound_stmts.html#class"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">class</code></a> statement. The name string is the
class name and becomes the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#definition.__name__" title="definition.__name__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__name__</code></a> attribute; the bases tuple
itemizes the base classes and becomes the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#class.__bases__" title="class.__bases__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__bases__</code></a> attribute;
and the dict dictionary is the namespace containing definitions for class
body and becomes the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__dict__</code></a> attribute. For example, the
following two statements create identical <a class="reference internal" href="#type" title="type"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate">type</code></a> objects:
<div class="doctest highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; class X(object):
... a = 1
...
&gt;&gt;&gt; X = type(&#39;X&#39;, (object,), dict(a=1))
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.2.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="unichr">
unichr(i)<a class="headerlink" href="#unichr" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the Unicode string of one character whose Unicode code is the integer
i. For example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">unichr(97)</code> returns the string <code class="docutils literal notranslate">u'a'</code>. This is the
inverse of <a class="reference internal" href="#ord" title="ord"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">ord()</code></a> for Unicode strings. The valid range for the argument
depends how Python was configured – it may be either UCS2 [0..0xFFFF] or UCS4
[0..0x10FFFF]. <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code> is raised otherwise. For ASCII and 8-bit
strings see <a class="reference internal" href="#chr" title="chr"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">chr()</code></a>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.0.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="unicode">
unicode(object='')<a class="headerlink" href="#unicode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
unicode(object[, encoding[, errors]])</dt>
<dd>Return the Unicode string version of object using one of the following modes:
If encoding and/or errors are given, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">unicode()</code> will decode the object
which can either be an 8-bit string or a character buffer using the codec for
encoding. The encoding parameter is a string giving the name of an encoding;
if the encoding is not known, <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">LookupError</code> is raised. Error handling is
done according to errors; this specifies the treatment of characters which are
invalid in the input encoding. If errors is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'strict'</code> (the default), a
<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">ValueError</code> is raised on errors, while a value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'ignore'</code> causes
errors to be silently ignored, and a value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'replace'</code> causes the official
Unicode replacement character, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">U+FFFD</code>, to be used to replace input
characters which cannot be decoded. See also the <a class="reference internal" href="codecs.html#module-codecs" title="codecs: Encode and decode data and streams."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">codecs</code></a> module.
If no optional parameters are given, <code class="docutils literal notranslate">unicode()</code> will mimic the behaviour of
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">str()</code> except that it returns Unicode strings instead of 8-bit strings. More
precisely, if object is a Unicode string or subclass it will return that
Unicode string without any additional decoding applied.
For objects which provide a <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__unicode__()</code> method, it will call this method
without arguments to create a Unicode string. For all other objects, the 8-bit
string version or representation is requested and then converted to a Unicode
string using the codec for the default encoding in <code class="docutils literal notranslate">'strict'</code> mode.
For more information on Unicode strings see <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq">Sequence Types — str, unicode, list, tuple, bytearray, buffer, xrange</a> which describes
sequence functionality (Unicode strings are sequences), and also the
string-specific methods described in the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#string-methods">String Methods</a> section. To
output formatted strings use template strings or the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">%</code> operator described
in the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#string-formatting">String Formatting Operations</a> section. In addition see the
<a class="reference internal" href="strings.html#stringservices">String Services</a> section. See also <a class="reference internal" href="#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">str()</code></a>.
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.0.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.2: Support for <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate">__unicode__()</code> added.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="vars">
vars([object])<a class="headerlink" href="#vars" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return the <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__dict__</code></a> attribute for a module, class, instance,
or any other object with a <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__dict__</code></a> attribute.
Objects such as modules and instances have an updateable <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__dict__</code></a>
attribute; however, other objects may have write restrictions on their
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#object.__dict__" title="object.__dict__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate">__dict__</code></a> attributes (for example, new-style classes use a
dictproxy to prevent direct dictionary updates).
Without an argument, <a class="reference internal" href="#vars" title="vars"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">vars()</code></a> acts like <a class="reference internal" href="#locals" title="locals"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">locals()</code></a>. Note, the
locals dictionary is only useful for reads since updates to the locals
dictionary are ignored.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="xrange">
xrange(stop)<a class="headerlink" href="#xrange" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dt class="sig sig-object py">
xrange(start, stop[, step])</dt>
<dd>This function is very similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">range()</code></a>, but returns an <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq-xrange">xrange
object</a>
instead of a list. This is an opaque sequence type which yields the same values
as the corresponding list, without actually storing them all simultaneously.
The advantage of <a class="reference internal" href="#xrange" title="xrange"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">xrange()</code></a> over <a class="reference internal" href="#range" title="range"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">range()</code></a> is minimal (since
<a class="reference internal" href="#xrange" title="xrange"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">xrange()</code></a> still has to create the values when asked for them) except when a
very large range is used on a memory-starved machine or when all of the range’s
elements are never used (such as when the loop is usually terminated with
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#break"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">break</code></a>). For more information on xrange objects, see
<a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq-xrange">XRange Type</a> and <a class="reference internal" href="stdtypes.html#typesseq">Sequence Types — str, unicode, list, tuple, bytearray, buffer, xrange</a>.
<div class="impl-detail compound">
CPython implementation detail: <a class="reference internal" href="#xrange" title="xrange"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">xrange()</code></a> is intended to be simple and fast. Implementations may
impose restrictions to achieve this. The C implementation of Python
restricts all arguments to native C longs (“short” Python integers), and
also requires that the number of elements fit in a native C long. If a
larger range is needed, an alternate version can be crafted using the
<a class="reference internal" href="itertools.html#module-itertools" title="itertools: Functions creating iterators for efficient looping."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">itertools</code></a> module: <code class="docutils literal notranslate">islice(count(start, step),
(stop-start+step-1+2*(step&lt;0))//step)</code>.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="zip">
zip([iterable, ...])<a class="headerlink" href="#zip" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>This function returns a list of tuples, where the i-th tuple contains the
i-th element from each of the argument sequences or iterables. The returned
list is truncated in length to the length of the shortest argument sequence.
When there are multiple arguments which are all of the same length, <a class="reference internal" href="#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">zip()</code></a>
is similar to <a class="reference internal" href="#map" title="map"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">map()</code></a> with an initial argument of <code class="docutils literal notranslate">None</code>. With a single
sequence argument, it returns a list of 1-tuples. With no arguments, it returns
an empty list.
The left-to-right evaluation order of the iterables is guaranteed. This
makes possible an idiom for clustering a data series into n-length groups
using <code class="docutils literal notranslate">zip(*[iter(s)]*n)</code>.
<a class="reference internal" href="#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">zip()</code></a> in conjunction with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">*</code> operator can be used to unzip a
list:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>&gt;&gt;&gt; x = [1, 2, 3]
&gt;&gt;&gt; y = [4, 5, 6]
&gt;&gt;&gt; zipped = zip(x, y)
&gt;&gt;&gt; zipped
[(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
&gt;&gt;&gt; x2, y2 = zip(*zipped)
&gt;&gt;&gt; x == list(x2) and y == list(y2)
True
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="versionadded">
New in version 2.0.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.4: Formerly, <a class="reference internal" href="#zip" title="zip"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">zip()</code></a> required at least one argument and <code class="docutils literal notranslate">zip()</code> raised a
<code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code> instead of returning an empty list.
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="import__">
__import__(name[, globals[, locals[, fromlist[, level]]]])<a class="headerlink" href="#import__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><div class="admonition note" id="index-8">
Note
This is an advanced function that is not needed in everyday Python
programming, unlike <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">importlib.import_module()</code></a>.
</div>
This function is invoked by the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">import</code></a> statement. It can be
replaced (by importing the <a class="reference internal" href="__builtin__.html#module-__builtin__" title="__builtin__: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate">__builtin__</code></a> module and assigning to
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">__builtin__.__import__</code>) in order to change semantics of the
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">import</code></a> statement, but nowadays it is usually simpler to use import
hooks (see <a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0302">PEP 302</a>). Direct use of <a class="reference internal" href="#import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">__import__()</code></a> is rare, except in
cases where you want to import a module whose name is only known at runtime.
The function imports the module name, potentially using the given globals
and locals to determine how to interpret the name in a package context.
The fromlist gives the names of objects or submodules that should be
imported from the module given by name. The standard implementation does
not use its locals argument at all, and uses its globals only to
determine the package context of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">import</code></a> statement.
level specifies whether to use absolute or relative imports. The default
is <code class="docutils literal notranslate">-1</code> which indicates both absolute and relative imports will be
attempted. <code class="docutils literal notranslate">0</code> means only perform absolute imports. Positive values for
level indicate the number of parent directories to search relative to the
directory of the module calling <a class="reference internal" href="#import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">__import__()</code></a>.
When the name variable is of the form <code class="docutils literal notranslate">package.module</code>, normally, the
top-level package (the name up till the first dot) is returned, not the
module named by name. However, when a non-empty fromlist argument is
given, the module named by name is returned.
For example, the statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate">import spam</code> results in bytecode resembling the
following code:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>spam = __import__(&#39;spam&#39;, globals(), locals(), [], -1)
</pre></div>
</div>
The statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate">import spam.ham</code> results in this call:
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>spam = __import__(&#39;spam.ham&#39;, globals(), locals(), [], -1)
</pre></div>
</div>
Note how <a class="reference internal" href="#import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">__import__()</code></a> returns the toplevel module here because this is
the object that is bound to a name by the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate">import</code></a> statement.
On the other hand, the statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate">from spam.ham import eggs, sausage as
saus</code> results in
<div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre>_temp = __import__(&#39;spam.ham&#39;, globals(), locals(), [&#39;eggs&#39;, &#39;sausage&#39;], -1)
eggs = _temp.eggs
saus = _temp.sausage
</pre></div>
</div>
Here, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate">spam.ham</code> module is returned from <a class="reference internal" href="#import__" title="__import__"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">__import__()</code></a>. From this
object, the names to import are retrieved and assigned to their respective
names.
If you simply want to import a module (potentially within a package) by name,
use <a class="reference internal" href="importlib.html#importlib.import_module" title="importlib.import_module"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">importlib.import_module()</code></a>.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.5: The level parameter was added.
</div>
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.5: Keyword support for parameters was added.
</div>
</dd></dl>

</section>
<section id="non-essential-built-in-functions">
<h1>3. Non-essential Built-in Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#non-essential-built-in-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
There are several built-in functions that are no longer essential to learn, know
or use in modern Python programming. They have been kept here to maintain
backwards compatibility with programs written for older versions of Python.
Python programmers, trainers, students and book writers should feel free to
bypass these functions without concerns about missing something important.
<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="apply">
apply(function, args[, keywords])<a class="headerlink" href="#apply" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The function argument must be a callable object (a user-defined or built-in
function or method, or a class object) and the args argument must be a
sequence. The function is called with args as the argument list; the number
of arguments is the length of the tuple. If the optional keywords argument is
present, it must be a dictionary whose keys are strings. It specifies keyword
arguments to be added to the end of the argument list. Calling <a class="reference internal" href="#apply" title="apply"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">apply()</code></a> is
different from just calling <code class="docutils literal notranslate">function(args)</code>, since in that case there is
always exactly one argument. The use of <a class="reference internal" href="#apply" title="apply"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">apply()</code></a> is equivalent to
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">function(*args, **keywords)</code>.
<div class="deprecated">
Deprecated since version 2.3: Use <code class="docutils literal notranslate">function(*args, **keywords)</code> instead of
<code class="docutils literal notranslate">apply(function, args, keywords)</code> (see <a class="reference internal" href="../tutorial/controlflow.html#tut-unpacking-arguments">Unpacking Argument Lists</a>).
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="buffer">
buffer(object[, offset[, size]])<a class="headerlink" href="#buffer" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>The object argument must be an object that supports the buffer call interface
(such as strings, arrays, and buffers). A new buffer object will be created
which references the object argument. The buffer object will be a slice from
the beginning of object (or from the specified offset). The slice will
extend to the end of object (or will have a length given by the size
argument).
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="coerce">
coerce(x, y)<a class="headerlink" href="#coerce" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Return a tuple consisting of the two numeric arguments converted to a common
type, using the same rules as used by arithmetic operations. If coercion is not
possible, raise <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate">TypeError</code>.
</dd></dl>

<dl class="py function">
<dt class="sig sig-object py" id="intern">
intern(string)<a class="headerlink" href="#intern" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Enter string in the table of “interned” strings and return the interned string
– which is string itself or a copy. Interning strings is useful to gain a
little performance on dictionary lookup – if the keys in a dictionary are
interned, and the lookup key is interned, the key comparisons (after hashing)
can be done by a pointer compare instead of a string compare. Normally, the
names used in Python programs are automatically interned, and the dictionaries
used to hold module, class or instance attributes have interned keys.
<div class="versionchanged">
Changed in version 2.3: Interned strings are not immortal (like they used to be in Python 2.2 and
before); you must keep a reference to the return value of <a class="reference internal" href="#intern" title="intern"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate">intern()</code></a> around
to benefit from it.
</div>
</dd></dl>

Footnotes
<dl class="footnote brackets">
<dt class="label" id="id3"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></dt>
<dd>It is used relatively rarely so does not warrant being made into a statement.
</dd>
<dt class="label" id="id4"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></dt>
<dd>Specifying a buffer size currently has no effect on systems that don’t have
<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">setvbuf()</code>. The interface to specify the buffer size is not done using a
method that calls <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate">setvbuf()</code>, because that may dump core when called after
any I/O has been performed, and there’s no reliable way to determine whether
this is the case.
</dd>
<dt class="label" id="id5">3</dt>
<dd>In the current implementation, local variable bindings cannot normally be
affected this way, but variables retrieved from other scopes (such as modules)
can be. This may change.
</dd>
</dl>
</section>

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